Cultural Learning Styles

Cultural learning styles are those learning styles of an individual that are the product of his or her cultural background and upbringing. In this digest, we review the theory on learning styles, the role culture plays within the theory, and the advantages and disadvantages of using culture as a means of understanding learning styles and their impact on the education of minority students.

Learning Styles Theory
The concept of cultural learning styles finds its basis in learning styles theory. Learning styles theory states that students prefer one way or style of learning over another. The theory suggests that designing educational experiences, curriculum, and instruction that match student learning styles may improve academic achievement (Irvine and York, 1995). The cultural learning styles concept goes a step further by stating that cultural upbringing plays a decisive role in determining a student's learning style.

More than 30 learning style testing instruments have been developed to measure different learning styles along a meaningful and reliable continuum. Examples of instruments include the Swassing-Barbe Modality Index and the Group Embedded Figures Tests. The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index categorizes learners as preferring visual, auditory, or tactile/kinesthetic styles (Barbe and Swassing, 1979).

The Group Embedded Figures Test categorizes students as being field-dependent or field-independent (Witkin, 1971) by having them find geometric figures that are embedded in patterns of figures (Irvine and York, 1995). Field dependence/independence refers to "the ways individuals respond cognitively to confusing information and unfamiliar situations," and the behaviors that the responses produce (Irvine and York, 1995). Field- dependent individuals are considered to be more group oriented and cooperative and less competitive than field-independent individuals (Dunn and Griggs, 1996).

Culture and Learning Style
Culture consists of values, beliefs, and ways of perceiving (Irvine and York, 1995). Cultural differences in children's learning styles may develop through their early experience (Guild and Garger, 1998). A cultural group's values and traditional lifestyle may, through child- rearing practices, influence the learning styles the individual will develop (Worthley, 1999).

Numerous studies have attempted to identify learning style preferences among students from a variety of cultures and ways to use the preferences to enhance learning. Dunn and Griggs have reviewed research on Hispanic students' learning styles. The research shows that Mexican American students seem to require a higher degree of structure than other groups. They prefer to work alone more than African American students, but less than Caucasian students. Nor are they as auditory and visual as Caucasians and African Americans. Hispanic middle and high school students are more field-dependent than Anglo students.

Based on these research conclusions, they advise teachers and counselors to expect a large number of Hispanic students to prefer: 1) conformity; 2) peer-oriented learning; 3) kinesthetic instructional resources; 4) a high degree of structure; and 5) a field-dependent cognitive style. Ramirez and Castaneda (1974) recommend cooperative learning; the use of humor, drama, and fantasy; modeling; and a global rather than analytic approach to understanding concepts.

Research on African American students demonstrates that they tend to prefer inferential reasoning, to focus on people rather than things, to prefer kinesthetic learning, and to be more proficient in nonverbal communications (Irvine and York, 1995). Gilbert and Gay recommend a loosely structured classroom environment for African American field dependent students. Teachers should work together with such students (Gilbert and Gay, 1989). In contrast, Clarkson recommends techniques such as highly structured presentations of material and proximity to the teacher in order to reduce distractions from other students (Clarkson, 1983).

Research on Native American students demonstrates that they tend to be field-dependent, like African Americans and Hispanics. They tend to prefer visual to verbal information, prefer learning in private rather than in public, prefer learning by watching and doing, and tend to value concise speech communication (Irvine and York, 1995). Sawyer recommends that teachers not focus on individual achievement, minimize lecturing, place less emphasis on competition, and minimize teacher directions (Sawyer, 1991).

The research in general tends to describe minorities as more field-dependent than non- minorities (Dunn and Griggs, 1996). Cooperative learning tends to be the most recommended technique for students from diverse cultural backgrounds (Irvine and York, 1995).

The Debate Over Styles
Learning style theory continues to be the subject of debate. Instruments that measure learning style are popular, but research does not fully support either their use or the underlying theory behind them (Irvine and York, 1995). Problems with making learning style theory the basis of educational practice have been identified. One problem is that different learning style theories and instruments use different style categories to define learning style continuums (Curry, 1990).

Evidence for the reliability and validity of learning style instruments is weak. Several learning style tests - like the Rod and Frame Test and the Group Embedded Figures Test - designed to measure the same construct have shown low correlations when given to the same subjects (Witkins et al, 1962). Some tests are not sensitive to the small differences between individuals' best and able learning styles and most cannot differentiate between auditory, tactile, visual, and kinesthetic strengths (Hilliard, 1988). Some researchers argue that cognitive style instruments measure cognitive ability rather than style preference (Irvine and York, 1995).

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